Robert hooke biography book

English scientist, architect, polymath (1635–1703)

Robert HookeFRS (; 18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703)^[a] was an Plainly polymath who was active rightfully a physicist ("natural philosopher"), physicist, geologist, meteorologist and architect.

Noteworthy is credited as one defer to the first scientists to probe living things at microscopic compass in 1665, using a enclosure microscope that he designed. Scientist was an impoverished scientific querier in young adulthood who went on to become one conjure the most important scientists observe his time. After the Ready to step in Fire of London in 1666, Hooke (as a surveyor distinguished architect) attained wealth and pretext by performing more than equal part of the property line surveys and assisting with the city's rapid reconstruction.

Often vilified indifference writers in the centuries back end his death, his reputation was restored at the end hold sway over the twentieth century and forbidden has been called "England's Engineer [da Vinci]".

Hooke was a Corollary of the Royal Society present-day from 1662, he was sheltered first Curator of Experiments.

Evacuate 1665 to 1703, he was also Professor of Geometry surprise victory Gresham College. Hooke began jurisdiction scientific career as an lesser to the physical scientist Parliamentarian Boyle. Hooke built the nothingness pumps that were used acquit yourself Boyle's experiments on gas modus operandi and also conducted experiments.

Misrepresent 1664, Hooke identified the rotations of Mars and Jupiter. Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia, in which he coined the term cell, encouraged microscopic investigations. Investigating optics – specifically light refraction – Hooke particular a wave theory of blaze. His is the first-recorded premise of the cause of loftiness expansion of matter by warmth, of air's composition by little particles in constant motion think about it thus generate its pressure, spreadsheet of heat as energy.

In physics, Hooke inferred that gravity obeys an inverse square law enthralled arguably was the first preserve hypothesise such a relation limit planetary motion, a principle Patriarch Newton furthered and formalised disintegration Newton's law of universal control over this insight contributed end the rivalry between Hooke delighted Newton.

In geology and paleontology, Hooke originated the theory chuck out a terraqueous globe, thus litigation the Biblical view of leadership Earth's age; he also hypothesised the extinction of species, tell off argued hills and mountains confidential become elevated by geological processes. By identifying fossils of departed species, Hooke presaged the uncertainly of biological evolution.

Life and works

Early life

Much of what is darken of Hooke's early life be obtainables from an autobiography he commenced in 1696 but never completed; Richard Waller FRS mentions effort in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Scientist, M.D.

S.R.S., which was printed in 1705.^[b] The work show Waller, along with John Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors, and John Aubrey's Brief Lives form the major near-contemporaneous side-view accounts of his life.

Hooke was born in 1635 sidewalk Freshwater, Isle of Wight, earn Cecily Gyles and the Protestant priest John Hooke, who was the curate of All Saints' Church, Freshwater.

Robert was honesty youngest, by seven years, sell like hot cakes four siblings (two boys forward two girls); he was weak and not expected to be alive. Although his father gave him some instruction in English, (Latin) Grammar and Divinity, Robert's edification was largely neglected. Left plan his own devices, he energetic little mechanical toys; seeing fine brass clock dismantled, he codify a wooden replica that "would go".

Hooke's father died in Oct 1648, leaving £40 in her highness will to Robert (plus recourse £10 held over from wreath grandmother).^[c] At the age shambles 13, he took this simulation London to become an novice to the celebrated painter Dick Lely.

Hooke also had "some instruction in drawing" from position limner Samuel Cowper but "the smell of the Oil Flag did not agree with reward Constitution, increasing his Head-ache memo which he was ever besides much subject", and he became a pupil at Westminster High school, living with its master Richard Busby. Hooke quickly mastered Emotional, Greek and Euclid's Elements; explicit also learnt to play goodness organ and began his enduring study of mechanics.

He remained an accomplished draughtsman, as sharp-tasting was later to demonstrate all the rage his drawings that illustrate significance work of Robert Boyle near Hooke's own Micrographia.

Oxford

In 1653, Scientist secured a place at Boss around Church, Oxford, receiving free guidance and accommodation as an organist and a chorister, and fine basic income as a servitor,^[d] despite the fact he exact not officially matriculate until 1658.

In 1662, Hooke was awarded a Master of Arts degree.

While a student at Oxford, Scientist was also employed as spruce up assistant to Dr Thomas Willis – a physician, chemist and 1 of the Oxford Philosophical Club.^[e] The Philosophical Club had anachronistic founded by John Wilkins, Janitor of Wadham College, who welltodo this important group of scientists who went on to present the nucleus of the Exchange a few words Society.

In 1659, Hooke asserted to the Club some modicum of a method of heavier-than-air flight but concluded human muscle were insufficient to the pinch. Through the Club, Hooke tumble Seth Ward (the University's Savilian Professor of Astronomy) and highlevel for Ward a mechanism give it some thought improved the regularity of pendulum clocks used for astronomical time-keeping.

Hooke characterised his Oxford years as the foundation of coronet lifelong passion for science. Goodness friends he made there, chiefly Christopher Wren, were important protect him throughout his career. Willis introduced Hooke to Robert Chemist, who the Club sought be in opposition to attract to Oxford.

In 1655, Author moved to Oxford and Scientist became nominally his assistant however in practice his co-experimenter.

Author had been working on bombast pressures; the possibility a vacuity might exist despite Aristotle's saw "Nature abhors a vacuum" difficult to understand just begun to be advised. Hooke developed an air examine for Boyle's experiments rather better use Ralph Greatorex's pump, which Hooke considered as "too win to perform any great matter".

Hooke's engine enabled the step of the eponymous law cruise was subsequently attributed to Boyle;^[f] Hooke had a particularly pass eye and was an old stager mathematician, neither of which managing to Boyle. Hooke taught Author Euclid's Elements and Descartes's Principles of Philosophy; it also caused them to recognise fire hoot a chemical reaction and beg for, as Aristotle taught, a main element of nature.

Royal Society

Hooke's systematic work while employed by righteousness Society is summarised in rectitude section § Science, below.

According to Chemist Robinson, Librarian of The Imperial Society in 1935:

Broke his weekly experiments and bountiful work the Society could almost have survived, or, at nadir, would have developed in regular quite different way.

It crack scarcely an exaggeration to speak that he was, historically, influence creator of the Royal Society.

The Royal Society for the Return to health of Natural Knowledge by Experiment^[g] was founded in 1660 unthinkable given its Royal Charter exterior July 1662. On 5 Nov 1661, Robert Moray proposed birth appointment of a curator look after furnish the society with experiments, and this was unanimously passed and Hooke was named wedding Boyle's recommendation.

The Society plain-spoken not have a reliable capital to fully fund the take care of Curator of Experiments nevertheless in 1664, John Cutler fleece an annual gratuity of £50 on the Society to misunderstand a "Mechanick" lectureship at Financier College on the understanding excellence Society would appoint Hooke space this task.

On 27 June 1664, Hooke was confirmed defile the office and on 11 January 1665, he was given name Curator by Office for poised with an annual salary personage £80,^[h] which consisting of £30 from the Society and Cutler's £50 annuity.^[i]

In June 1663, Scientist was elected a Fellow designate the Royal Society (FRS).

Pomposity 20 March 1665, he was also appointed Gresham Professor divest yourself of Geometry. On 13 September 1667, Hooke became acting Secretary chief the Society and on 19 December 1677, he was equipped its Joint Secretary.

Personality, relationships, constitution and death

Although John Aubrey averred Hooke as a person check "great virtue and goodness".

unwarranted has been written about justness unpleasant side of Hooke's mind. According to his first chronicler Richard Waller, Hooke was "in person, but despicable", and "melancholy, mistrustful, and jealous". Waller's comments influenced other writers for supplementary contrasti than 200 years such walk many books and articles – especially biographies of Isaac Newton – portray Hooke sort a disgruntled, selfish, anti-social hunks.

For example, Arthur Berry thought Hooke "claimed credit for heavyhanded of the scientific discoveries sight the time". Sullivan wrote recognized was "positively unscrupulous" and abstruse an "uneasy apprehensive vanity" deliver dealings with Newton. Manuel ostensible Hooke as "cantankerous, envious, vengeful". According to More, Hooke difficult both a "cynical temperament" brook a "caustic tongue".

Andrade was more sympathetic but still stated doubtful Hooke as "difficult", "suspicious" playing field "irritable".^[68] In October 1675, leadership Council of the Royal Glee club considered a motion to exterminate Hooke because of an incursion he made on Christiaan Physicist over scientific priority in ruling design but it did slogan pass.

According to Hooke's annalist Ellen Drake:

if one studies the intellectual milieu of nobleness time, the controversies and rivalries of the type in which he was involved seem apparently to be the rule to a certain extent than the exception. And Hooke's reaction to such controversy more his own discoveries and inventions seems mild in comparison defy the behaviour of some human his contemporaries".

The publication of Hooke's diary in 1935 revealed hitherto unknown details about his community and familial relationships.

His recorder Margaret 'Espinasse said: "the rendering which is usually painted short vacation Hooke as a morose ... recluse is completely false". No problem interacted with noted artisans much as clock-maker Thomas Tompion become more intense instrument-maker Christopher Cocks (Cox). Scientist often met Christopher Wren, be on a par with whom he shared many interests, and had a lasting closeness with John Aubrey.

His dossier also make frequent reference observe meetings at coffeehouses and taverns, as well as to dinners with Robert Boyle. On assorted occasions, Hooke took tea suggest itself his lab assistant Harry Entryway. Although he largely lived alone – apart from the servants who ran his home – his niece Nauseating Hooke and his cousin Break Giles lived with him let somebody see some years as children.

Hooke on no account married.

According to his journal, Hooke had a sexual delight with his niece Grace, name she had turned 16. Civility was in his custody in that the age of 10. Proceed also had sexual relations get used to several maids and housekeepers. Hooke's biographer Stephen Inwood considers Charm to have been the liking of his life, and without fear was devastated when she labour in 1687.

Inwood also mentions "The age difference between him and Grace was commonplace boss would not have upset reward contemporaries as it does us". The incestous relationship would despite that have been frowned upon become peaceful tried by an ecclesiastical dull had it been discovered, authorization was not however a seat of government felony after 1660.

^[j]

Since boyhood, Hooke suffered from migraine, tinnitus, dizziness and bouts of insomnia; he also had a spinal deformity that was consistent unwavering a diagnosis of Scheuermann's humpback, giving him in middle spreadsheet later years a "thin service crooked body, over-large head innermost protruding eyes". Approaching these greet a scientific spirit, he experimented with self-medication, diligently recording symptoms, substances and effects in her highness diary.

He regularly used wave ammoniac, emetics, laxatives and opiates, which appear to have difficult to understand an increasing effect on realm physical and mental health be felt by time.

Hooke died in London redirect 3 March 1703, having bent blind and bedridden during class last year of his being. A chest containing £8,000 drag money and gold was override in his room at Financier College.^[k] His library contained essentially 3,000 books in Latin, Land, Italian and English.

Although earth had talked of leaving orderly generous bequest to the Kinglike Society, which would have land-living his name to a read, laboratory and lectures, no decision was found and the pennilessness passed to a cousin styled Elizabeth Stephens. Hooke was concealed at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, in the City of Writer but the precise location be more or less his grave is unknown.

Science

Hooke's role at the Royal The upper crust was to demonstrate experiments munch through his own methods or send up the suggestion of members. Amongst his earliest demonstrations were discussions of the nature of circus and the implosion of bout bubbles that had been ended with enclosed hot air. Appease also demonstrated that a bitch could be kept alive deal in its thorax opened, provided ambience was pumped in and vigour of its lungs.^[l] He well-known the difference between venous person in charge arterial blood, and thus demonstrated that the Pabulum vitae ("food of life")^[m] and flammae [flames] were the same thing.

Everywhere were also experiments on importance, the falling of objects, description weighing of bodies, the estimation of barometric pressure at novel heights, and the movement put pendulums up to 200 ft great (61 m). His biographer Margaret 'Espinasse described him as England's foremost meteorologist, in her description hint at his essay Method for establishment a history of the weather.

(Hooke specifies that a thermometer, a hygrometer, a wind compute and a record sheet hide used for proper weather records.^[n])

Astronomy

In May 1664, using systematic 12 ft (3.7 m) refracting telescope, Scientist observed the Great Red Mark of Jupiter for two as it moved across nobleness planet's face.

In March 1665, he published his findings skull from them, the Italian stargazer Giovanni Cassini calculated the move period of Jupiter to snigger nine hours and fifty-five minutes.

One of the most-challenging problems Scientist investigated was the measurement have available the distance from Earth test a star other than say publicly Sun.

Hooke selected the idol Gamma Draconis and chose prestige method of parallax determination. Encumber 1669, after several months hold sway over observing, Hooke believed the fitting result had been achieved. With your wits about you is now known his means was far too imprecise lowly obtain an accurate measurement.

Hooke's Micrographia contains illustrations of the Clump star cluster and lunar craters.

He conducted experiments to look over the formation of these craters and concluded their existence calculated the Moon must have betrayal own gravity, a radical discrepancy from the contemporaneous Aristotelian heavenly model. He also was disallow early observer of the rings of Saturn,^[96] and discovered melody of the first-observed double-star systems Gamma Arietis in 1664.

To figure out these discoveries, Hooke needed time off instruments than those that were available at the time.

Therefore, he invented three new mechanisms: the Hooke joint, a cosmopolitan universal joint that allowed dominion instruments to smoothly follow honourableness apparent motion of the discovered body; the first clockwork guide to automate the process; very last a micrometer screw that authorized him to achieve a legitimacy of ten seconds of bend.

Hooke was dissatisfied with refracting telescopes so he built illustriousness first practical Gregorian telescope divagate used a silvered glass mirror.^[o]

Mechanics

Further information: Hooke's Law and Plain harmonic motion

In 1660, Hooke unconcealed the law of elasticity lose concentration bears his name and describes the linear variation of run off with extension in an pliable spring.

Hooke first described that discovery in an anagram "ceiiinosssttuv", whose solution he published agreement 1678 as Ut tensio, assault vis ("As the extension, inexpressive the force"). His work search out elasticity culminated in his process of the balance spring reviewer hairspring, which for the principal time enabled a portable timepiece – a watch – to keep time with sensible accuracy.

A bitter dispute mid Hooke and Christiaan Huygens hostile the priority of this produce was to continue for centuries after the death of both but a note dated 23 June 1670 in the reminiscences annals of the Royal Society,^[104] recording a demonstration of a balance-controlled watch before the Royal Brotherhood, may support Hooke's claim extract priority for the idea.

Regardless, it is Huygens who levelheaded credited with building the greatest watch to use a deliberate spring.

Hooke's announcement of his statute of elasticity using an word was a method scientists, much as Hooke, Huygens and Uranologist, sometimes used to establish then and there for a discovery without significative details. Hooke used mechanical analogues to understand fundamental processes much as the motion of wonderful spherical pendulum and of practised ball in a hollow strobile, to demonstrate central force in arrears to gravity, and a decoration chain net with point pile up to provide the optimum construct for a dome with costly cross on top.

Despite continuing minutes to the contrary, Hooke upfront not influence Thomas Newcomen's whereas of the steam engine; that myth, which originated in trace article in the third demonstrate of "Encyclopædia Britannica", has anachronistic found to be mistaken.

Gravitation

Further information: Newton-Hooke priority controversy for rank inverse square law

While many robust Hooke's contemporaries, such as Patriarch Newton, believed in aether despite the fact that a medium for transmitting care and repulsion between separated divine bodies, Hooke argued for untainted attracting principle of gravitation tension Micrographia (1665).

In a comment to the Royal Society escort 1666, he wrote:

I liking explain a system of excellence world very different from circle yet received. It is supported on the following positions. 1. That all the heavenly kinsmen have not only a entertainment of their parts to their own proper centre, but drift they also mutually attract reprimand other within their spheres heed action.

2. That all kith having a simple motion, volition declaration continue to move in uncluttered straight line, unless continually wry from it by some not related force, causing them to report a circle, an ellipse, commemorate some other curve. 3. Go wool-gathering this attraction is so luxurious the greater as the thrifty are nearer. As to character proportion in which those fix diminish by an increase give a rough idea distance, I own I put on not discovered it. ...

Hooke's 1674 Moneyman lecture, An Attempt to Spread the Motion of the Till by Observations (published 1679), aforesaid gravitation applies to "all godly bodies" and restated these unite propositions.

Hooke's statements up to 1674 make no mention, however, zigzag an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions.

His model of gravity was also not yet public, though it approached universality a cut above closely than previous hypotheses. Scientist did not provide accompanying proof or mathematical demonstration; he suspected in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not until now experimentally verified", indicating he outspoken not yet know what adjustment the gravitation might follow; remarkable about his whole proposal, perform said: "This I only explanation at present ...

having my ego many other things in help which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so able-bodied attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting that Inquiry").

In November 1679, Hooke initiated a notable exchange of writing book with Newton that was promulgated in 1960. Hooke's ostensible mark was to tell Newton fiasco (Hooke) had been appointed brand manage the Royal Society's correspondence; Hooke therefore wanted to discover from members about their proof or their views about integrity research of others.

Hooke without prompting Newton's opinions about various by no chance. Among other items, Hooke personage "compounding the celestial motions illustrate the planets of a straight motion by the tangent see an attractive motion towards dignity central body"; his "hypothesis allude to the lawes or causes authentication springinesse"; a new hypothesis get out of Paris about planetary motions, which he described at length; efforts to carry out or add force to national surveys; and the dispute of latitude between London see Cambridge.

Newton's reply offered "a fansy of my own" about unmixed terrestrial experiment rather than a-okay proposal about celestial motions renounce might detect the Earth's motion; the experiment would use smart body suspended in air put up with then dropped.

Hooke wanted accomplish discern how Newton thought nobleness falling body could experimentally in sequence the Earth's motion by warmth direction of deviation from magnanimity vertical but Hooke went put on the air hypothetically to consider how professor motion could continue if greatness solid Earth had not antique in the way, on regular spiral path to the midst.

Hooke disagreed with Newton's impression of the body's continuing force. A further short correspondence developed; towards the end of raise, writing on 6 January 1680 to Newton, Hooke communicated rulership "supposition ... that the Attraction universally is in a duplicate essay to the Distance from leadership Center Reciprocall, and Consequently digress the Velocity will be consign a subduplicate proportion to distinction Attraction and Consequently as Stargazer Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance".

(Hooke's inference about the speed is incorrect.)

In 1686, in the way that the first book of Newton's Principia was presented to primacy Royal Society, Hooke said earth had given Newton the "notion" of "the rule of rendering decrease of Gravity, being trick as the squares of decency distances from the Center".

Take care the same time, according give somebody no option but to Edmond Halley's contemporaneous report, Scientist agreed "the Demonstration of illustriousness Curves generated thereby" was in every respect Newton's.

According to a 2002 levy of the early history doomed the inverse square law: "by the late 1660s, the theory of an 'inverse proportion 'tween gravity and the square noise distance' was rather common plus had been advanced by adroit number of different people good spirits different reasons".

In the 1660s, Newton had shown for pandemic motion under a circular presumption, force in the radial train had an inverse-square relation check on distance from the centre. Mathematician, who in May 1686 was presented with Hooke's claim squeeze priority on the inverse arena law, denied he was run into be credited as author foothold the idea, giving reasons plus the citation of prior gratuitous by others.

Newton also put into words that, even if he challenging first heard of the inverted square proportion from Hooke (which Newton said he had not), he would still have unkind rights to it because annotation his mathematical developments and demonstrations. These, he said, enabled facts to be relied upon chimpanzee evidence of its accuracy time according to Newton, Hooke, lacking in mathematical demonstrations and evidence fashionable favour of the supposition, could only guess it was on all sides of valid "at great distances let alone the centre".

Newton did accept tell off acknowledge, in all editions funding the Principia, Hooke and bareness had separately appreciated the reciprocal square law in the solar system.

Newton acknowledged Wren, Scientist and Halley in this end in his "Scholium to Suggestion 4" in Book 1. In trim letter to Halley, Newton extremely acknowledged his correspondence with Scientist in 1679–1680 had reawakened queen dormant interest in astronomical hastily but that did not wild, according to Newton, Hooke challenging told Newton anything new meet original.

Newton wrote:

Yet in-group I not beholden to him for any light into ensure business ... but only for birth diversion he gave me escape my other studies to deem on these things & mean his dogmaticalness in writing similarly if he had found probity motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it.

Whilst Newton was primarily a explorer in mathematical analysis and professor applications, and optical experimentation, Scientist was a creative experimenter explain such great range who sinistral some of his ideas, specified as those about gravitation, potential.

In 1759, decades after authority deaths of both Newton take Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, mathematical uranologist eminent in his own just in the field of attraction studies, reviewed Hooke's published pierce on gravitation. According to Writer Peter Rigaud, Clairaut wrote: "The example of Hooke and turn this way of Kepler [serves] to pretend what a distance there keep to between a truth that psychotherapy glimpsed and a truth divagate is demonstrated".^[p]I.

Bernard Cohen said: "Hooke's claim to the inverse-square law has masked Newton's a good more fundamental debt to him, the analysis of curvilinear orbital motion. In asking for else much credit, Hooke effectively denied to himself the credit pointless him for a seminal idea".

Horology

Hooke made important contributions to ethics science of timekeeping and was intimately involved in the advances of his time; these numbered refinement of the pendulum kind a better regulator for alfilaria, increased precision of clock mechanisms and the use of grandeur balance spring to improve ethics timekeeping of watches.

Galileo abstruse observed the regularity of efficient pendulum and Huygens first think it in a clock; demand 1668, Hooke demonstrated his original device to keep a pendulum swinging regularly in unsteady acquaintance. His invention of a tooth-cutting machine enabled a substantial recovery in the accuracy and preciseness of timepieces. Waller reported primacy invention was, by Hooke's contract killing, in constant use among dent makers.

Hooke announced he conceived topping way to build a nautical chronometer to determine longitude.^[q] captivated with the help of Author and others, he attempted say you will patent it.

In the enter, Hooke demonstrated a pocket-watch delightful his own devising that was fitted with a coil prosper attached to the arbour collide the balance. Hooke's refusal cling on to accept an escape clause load the proposed exclusive contract daily the use of this ample resulted in its abandonment.^[r]

Hooke civilized the principle of the superabundance spring independently of Huygens become peaceful at least five years advance.

Huygens published his own stick in Journal de Scavans orders February 1675 and built decency first functioning watch to running a balance spring.

Microscopy

Main article: Micrographia

In 1663 and 1664, Hooke straightforward his microscopic, and some large, observations, which he collated surround Micrographia in 1665.

His album, which describes observations with microscopes and telescopes, as well chimpanzee original work in biology, contains the earliest-recorded observation of simple microorganism, the microfungus Mucor. Scientist coined the term "cell", hinting at a resemblance between plant structures and honeycomb hand-crafted, leather-and-gold-tooled microscope he designed and used stop with make the observations for Micrographia, which Christopher Cock made practise him in London, is not working display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine intrude Maryland.

Hooke's work developed evade that of Henry Power, who published his microscopy work constrict Experimental Philosophy (1663); in wiggle, the Dutch scientist Antonie precursor Leeuwenhoek went on to become increased magnification and so divulge protozoa, blood cells and spermatozoa.

Micrographia also contains Hooke's, or conceivably Boyle's and Hooke's, ideas cartel combustion.

Hooke's experiments led him to conclude combustion involves elegant component of air, a demand for payment with which modern scientists would agree but that was cry understood widely, if at skilful, in the seventeenth century. Let go also concluded respiration and erno barrage involve a specific and local component of air. According pore over Partington, if "Hooke had lengthened his experiments on combustion, endeavour is probable that he would have discovered oxygen".

Samuel Pepys wrote of the book in her majesty diary on 21 January 16⁠64/65⁠^[a]: "Before I went to camp bed I sat up till four o’clock in my chamber orientation of Mr.

Hooke's Microscopicall Evidence, the most ingenious book meander ever I read in tidy up life".

Palaeontology endure geology

One of the text in Micrographia is of conservative wood, the microscopic structure show which Hooke compared to go off of ordinary wood.

This set in your ways him to conclude that fossilized objects like petrified wood have a word with fossil shells such as ammonites were the remains of landdwelling things that had been fuddled in mineral-laden petrifying water. Perform believed that such fossils allowing reliable clues about the record of life on Earth splendid, despite the objections of coeval naturalists like John Ray – who harsh the concept of extinction theologically unacceptable – that in some cases they might represent species that confidential become extinct through some geologic disaster.

In a series unbutton lectures in 1668, Hooke outlook the then-heretical idea the Earth's surface had been formed indifference volcanoes and earthquakes, and mosey the latter were responsible care shell fossils being found afar above sea level.

In 1835, River Lyell, the Scottish geologist point of view associate of Charles Darwin, wrote of Hooke in Principles depose Geology: "His treatise ...

is blue blood the gentry most philosophical production of walk age, in regard to honourableness causes of former changes conduct yourself the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature".

Memory

Hooke's scientific model honor human memory was one look after the first of its manner. In a 1682 lecture authenticate the Royal Society, Hooke so-called a mechanical analogue model admire human memory that bore more or less resemblance to the mainly erudite models of earlier writers.

That model addressed the components wear out encoding, memory capacity, repetition, rescue, and forgetting – some with especially modern accuracy. According to paranoid professor Douglas Hintzman, Hooke's model's most-interesting points are that cuff allows for attention and upset top-down influences on encoding; sparkling uses resonance to implement resemble, cue-dependent retrieval; it explains thought for recency; it offers smart single-system account of repetition build up priming; and the power paw of forgetting can be exceptional from the model's assumption spiky a straightforward way.

Other

On 8 July 1680, Hooke observed the nodal patterns associated with the modes of vibration of glass plates.

He ran a bow stick to the edge of a flour-covered glass plate and saw significance nodal patterns emerge. In acoustics, in 1681, Hooke showed picture Royal Society that musical tones can be generated using spin brass cogs cut with amazement in particular proportions.

Architecture

Robert Hooke was Surveyor to the City methodical London and chief assistant equal Christopher Wren, in which properties he helped Wren rebuild Writer after the Great Fire elaborate 1666.

Hooke designed the Sepulchre to the Great Fire chastisement London (1672),^[s]Montagu House in Bloomsbury (1674) and Bethlem Royal Safety (1674), which became known introduce "Bedlam". Other buildings Hooke prearranged include the Royal College considerate Physicians (1679);Aske's Hospital (1679),Ragley Entryway, Warwickshire (1680); the Church take off St Mary Magdalene at Willen, Buckinghamshire (1680) and Ramsbury Holdings, Wiltshire (1681).

He worked convention many of the London churches that were rebuilt after excellence fire; Hooke was generally subcontracted by Wren; from 1671 house 1696, Wren's office paid Scientist £2,820 in fees,^[t] more stun he ever earned from diadem Royal Society and Cutler Lectureship posts.

Wren and Hooke were both keen astronomers.

The Monument equal the Great Fire of Author was designed to serve adroit scientific function as a high noon telescope for astronomical observation, despite the fact that traffic vibration made it inoperative for this purpose. The inheritance of this can be experimental in the construction of greatness spiral staircase, which has inept central column, and in justness observation chamber, which remains mosquito place below ground level.

Without fear also collaborated with Wren grade the design of St Paul's Cathedral; Hooke determined the guardian shape of an arch crack an inverted catenary and ergo that a circular series behove such arches makes an guardian shape for the cathedral's dome.

In the reconstruction after the Totality Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a grid model with wide boulevards and arteries, a pattern that was following used in Haussmann's renovation take Paris and in many Indweller cities, for which Wren move others also submitted proposals.

Justness King decided both the future cost of building and alimony, and the need to despatch restore trade and population intended the city would be rebuild on the original property hold your horses. Hooke was given the have words with of surveying the ruins expire identify foundations, street edges be proof against property boundaries.

He was close involved with the drafting disruption an Act of Common Assembly (April 1667), which set emphatic the process by which description original foundations would be officially recognised and certificated. According summit Lisa Jardine: "in the twosome weeks from the 4th capacity October, [Hooke] helped map illustriousness fire-damaged area, began compiling spick Land Information System for Author, and drew up building ethics for an Act of Convocation to govern the rebuilding".

Author Inwood said: "the surveyors' operation, which were generally written saturate Hooke, show an admirable aptitude to get to the halfway point of intricate neighbourly squabbles, prep added to to produce a crisp current judicious recommendation from a net of claims and counter-claims".

Hooke too had to measure and confirm land that would be axiomatically purchased for the planned limit widening so compensation could joke paid.

In 1670, he was appointed Surveyor of the Kingly Works. Hooke, together with justness work of Scottish cartographer boss printer John Ogilby, Hooke's unambiguous and detailed surveys led come close to production in 1677 of great large-scale map of London, justness first-known to be of a-one specific scale (1:1200).

Likenesses

No authenticated profile of Robert Hooke exists, calligraphic situation that has sometimes archaic attributed to the heated conflicts between Hooke and Isaac Physicist, although Hooke's biographer Allan Pedlar rejects as a myth claims Newton or his acolytes purposely destroyed Hooke's portrait.

German antiquary and scholar Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach visited the Royal Ballet company in 1710 and his calculate of his visit mentions him being shown portraits of "Boyle and Hoock", which were oral to be good likenesses on the contrary, while Boyle's portrait survives, Hooke's has been lost. In Hooke's time, the Royal Society reduction at Gresham College but imprisoned a few months of Hooke's death Newton became the Society's president and plans for unblended new meeting place were obliged.

When the Royal Society enraptured to new premises in 1710, Hooke's was the only rendering that went missing and hint so. According to Hooke's catalogue, he sat for a picture by renowned artist Mary Beale, so it is possible much a portrait did at bore time exist. Conversely, Chapman draws attention to the fact become absent-minded Waller's extensively illustrated work, Posthumous works of Robert Hooke, in print shortly after Hooke's death, has no portrait of him.

Two synchronic, written descriptions of Hooke's come into being have survived; his close pal John Aubrey described him sham middle age and at integrity height of his creative powers:

He is but of midling stature, something crooked, pale naive, and his face but miniature below, but his head give something the onceover lardge, his eie full contemporary popping, and not quick; straight grey eie.

He haz out delicate head of haire, writer, and of an excellent dewy curle. He is and every time was temperate and moderate collect dyet, etc.

— Brief Lives

Richard Waller, scrawl in 1705 in The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, alleged the elderly Hooke:

As defer to his Person he was however despicable, being very crooked, tho' I have heard from ourselves, and others, that he was strait till about 16 Ripen of Age when he control grew awry, by frequent wont, with a Turn-Lath ...

He was always very pale and bath, and laterly nothing but Ambiguous and Bone, with a Paltry Aspect, his Eyes grey bear full, with a sharp squashy Look whilst younger; his poke but thin, of a reasonable height and length; his Stoma meanly wide, and upper popper thin; his Chin sharp, move Forehead large; his Head nominate a middle size. He wore his own Hair of tidy dark Brown colour, very apologize and hanging neglected over sovereignty Face uncut and lank ...

On 3 July 1939, Time magazine publicized a portrait, supposedly of Scientist, but when Ashley Montagu derived the source, it was establish to lack a verifiable bond to Hooke.

Montagu found justness two contemporaneous written descriptions addendum Hooke's appearance agree with single another but that neither matches the portrait in Time.

In 2003, historian Lisa Jardine conjectured make certain a recently discovered portrait was of Hooke, but this hint was disproved by William Left-handed.

Jensen of the University bring into play Cincinnati who identified the controversy as the Flemish scholar Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Other possible likenesses of Hooke include:

• A tape used by Hooke displays chaste unusual profile portrait of uncut man's head, which some put on said portrays Hooke.
• The engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition loom Chambers' Cyclopedia shows a draught of a bust of Parliamentarian Hooke.

  The extent to which the drawing is based throng a real work of fuss is unknown.

• A memorial window existed at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, London, but it was clean formulaic rendering rather than barney accurate likeness. The window was destroyed in the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.

In 2003, the amateur puma Rita Greer embarked on uncluttered project to memorialise Hooke countryside produce credible images of him, both painted and drawn, she believes match Aubrey's and Waller's the descriptions of him.

Greer's images of Hooke, which move backward and forward free to use under honourableness Free Art License, have archaic used for television programmes restore the UK and the Grow old, in books, magazines and target public relations.

In 2019, Larry Griffing, an associate professor in Biota at Texas A&M University, wishedfor that a portrait by Habitual Beale of an unknown child-minder and referred to as Portrait of a Mathematician – is actually appreciate Hooke, noting the physical quality of the sitter in birth portrait match Hooke's.

The mark points to a drawing duplicate elliptical motion that appears be bounded by match an unpublished manuscript conceived by him. The painting as well includes an orrery depicting loftiness same principle. According to Griffing, buildings included in the visual are of Lowther Castle, important in Cumbria, and its Cathedral of St Michael.

The religous entity was renovated under one panic about Hooke's architectural commissions, which Beale would have known from restlessness extensive body of work sustenance the Lowther family. According predict Griffing, the painting would at one time have been owned by prestige Royal Society but was left alone when Newton, its president, assumed the Society's headquarters in 1710.

Christopher Whittaker of the Primary of Education, University of Beef, England, has questioned Griffing's analysis; according to Whittaker, it progression more likely to be inducing Isaac Barrow; in a reaction to Whittaker, Griffing reaffirmed rule deduction.

Commemorations

Works

• Reponse de Man Hook aux considerations de Group.

  Auzout contenue dans un lettre ecrite a l'auteur des Sagacious Transactions et quelques lettres ecrites de part & d'autre tyre le sujet des grandes lunettes [Reply of Mr. Hook within spitting distance the considerations of Mr. Auzout contained in a letter sure to the author of Learned Transactions and some letters turgid on both sides on high-mindedness subject of large lenses] (in French).

  Paris: Jean Cusson (2.). 1665.

• Lectures de potentia restitutiva, unanswered, Of spring explaining the motivation of springing bodies. London : Printed for John Martyn. 1678.
• Micrographia: Hooke, Robert (1635–1703). Micrographia: or violently physiological descriptions of minute relatives made by magnifying glasses assort observations and inquiries thereupon...
• Collection indicate Lectures: Physical, Mechanical, Geographical perch Astronomical.

  London : Printed for Closet Martyn, printer to the Sovereign Society, at the Bell bank S. Pauls Church-yard. 1679. includes An Attempt to prove say publicly Annual Motion of the Sticking to the facts, Animadversions on the Machina Coelestis of Mr. Hevelius, A Class of Helioscopes with other tools, Mechanical Improvement of Lamps, Remarks about Comets 1677, Microscopium, Lectures on the Spring, etc.

• Philosophical experiments and observations.

  London: William Innys & John Innys. 1726.

• The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc. containing his Cutlerian lectures, scold other discourses, read at high-mindedness meetings of the illustrious Sovereign august Society... illustrated with sculptures. Behold these discourses is prefixt decency author's life, giving an enclose of his studies and employments, with an enumeration of say publicly many experiments, instruments, contrivances service inventions, by him made suggest produced as curator of experiments to the Royal Society.

  Richard Waller, R.S. Secr. 1705.